Caltech Center for Neuromorphic Systems Engineering

"The scientists and engineers at the Center for Neuromorphic Systems Engineering (CNSE) are working to translate our understanding of biologic systems into a new class of electronic devices that imitate the ways animals sense and make sense of the world." Andersen is a researcher here, and this research is NSF sponsored.
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Encoding of Depth in Parietal Reach Region (PRR) (Apr. 20, 2004)

This research project is involved with a brain to computer interface that is designed to enable real time movements of robotic arms in space. It is a study done on non-human primates. This research is NSF sponsored.
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Reward Expectancy in Dorsomedial Frontal Cortex of the Macaque Monkey (Apr. 20, 2004)

The scientists observe neural activity for tasks given to monkeys and relate it to behavioral/environmental factors. This research is NSF sponsored.
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Decoding Neuroprosthetic Control Signals from Human Parietal Cortex (Apr. 20, 2004)

Scientists are investigating the human brain's parietal reach region through patients already implanted with electrodes in order to develop the machine-human interface signals needed to operate a robotic arm. Also, they are examining patients with cortico-spinal tract injury to see if this is a possible place for interface in these patients.
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Matrix Realized (Jan. 29, 2005)

This article explains the historical and the current states of BMI by touching upon the work performed by some of the field's leading figures.
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Andrew Schwartz:
Summary: Andrew Schwartz and colleagues have done work similar to Nicolelis' lab in that they have successfully created a BMI device used by a monkey. The monkey was able to utilize a robotic arm in its own feeding process solely via brain waves. The following are some key articles with further details of Schwartz's work.

Brain Controls Robot Arm in Monkey, University of Pittsburgh Researcher Reports at AAAS (Feb. 27, 2005)

"University of Pittsburgh researchers report that a monkey outfitted with a child-sized robotic arm controlled directly by its own brain signals is able to feed itself chunks of fruits and vegetables. The researchers trained the monkey to feed itself by using signals from its brain that are passed through tiny electrodes, thinner than a human hair, and fed into a specially designed algorithm that tells the arm how to move." This work was funded through the NIH's National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS).
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Researchers Develop Neural Prosthesis Allowing a Monkey to Feed Self Using Only Its Brain (Oct. 28, 2004)

"Researchers at the University of Pittsburgh have demonstrated that a monkey can feed itself with a robotic arm simply by using signals from its brain . . . . 'The next step with this device is to add realistic hand and finger movement,' said Meel Velliste, Ph.D., a postdoctoral fellow in the Schwartz Lab . . . . The arm was developed by the Pitt researchers and custom-built by Keshen Prosthetics in Shanghai, China. The software that controls the arm was developed at Pitt and Arizona State University. Modifications to the original arm were made at the Robotics Institute at Carnegie Mellon University."
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Matrix Realized (Jan. 29, 2005)

This article explains the historical and the current states of BMI by touching upon the work performed by some of the field's leading figures.
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John Donoghue:
Summary: John Donoghue is both a professor at Brown University and co-director of Cyberkinetics - Neurotechnology Systems, Inc. His work in BMI has led to the clinical trials, through Cyberkinetics, of brain implants for directing computer cursors via thought. This particular product is called the "BrainGate Neural Interface System." The following portal to Cyberkinetics and links to articles on brain implants have further information on Donoghue's work.

Cyberkinetics - Neurotechnology Systems, Inc.
"Cyberkinetics Neurotechnology Systems is a leader in brain-machine interface technology. We are developing products to restore function, as well as to monitor, detect, and respond to a variety of neurological diseases and disorders by bringing together advances in neuroscience, computer science and engineering."
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Devices that Read Human Though Now Possible: Brain Implants Could Help Severely Disabled (Nov. 10, 2003)
Nicolelis revealed a study on human subjects that indicates that devices can be controlled via thought. Also, the article mentions Donoghue and Cyberkinetics Inc. with their implant device "BrainGate."
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Matrix Realized (Jan. 29, 2005)
This article explains the historical and the current states of BMI by touching upon the work performed by some of the field's leading figures.
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Philip Kennedy:
Summary: Philip Kennedy is a pioneer in the BMI field since being part of a group in 1996 that was the first to place an electrode for neural stimulation in a human being. The company in which he is involved, Neural Signals, has products that range from a device used to direct a computer via thought alone to neurotrophic electrodes designed to help restore movement like hand grip in patients. The following items are a link to Neural Signals Inc. and also an article that contains further information on Kennedy's work.

Neural Signals

This company has three areas of technological focus entitled "Movement Restoration," "Brain to Computer Interfacing," and "Muscle Communicator." The first project restores hand function and hopefully more via externally stimulating muscles and using a neurotrophic electrode. The next project makes use of an electrode implant by which locked in or paralyzed individuals are able to manipulate computers through their thoughts alone. Finally, the last project seems to merely be a movement amplifier applied towards computer use.
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Matrix Realized (Jan. 29, 2005)

This article explains the historical and the current states of BMI by touching upon the work performed by some of the field's leading figures. An interesting fact gleaned from this piece is that Philip Kennedy, along with his coworkers, are credited with being "the first group to implant a neural electrode into a person [1996]."
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Vincent and Alan Chow:
Summary: Vincent and Alan Chow are the co-founders of the Optobionics Corporation. This company's product is designed to restore vision to patients with retinitis pigmentosa, and, possibly in the future, age-related macular degeneration. The device, holding thousands of microphotodiodes, is implanted below the retina and has proven successful in restoring some vision function to patients while also positively stimulating retinal tissue apart from the implant site. The following articles and links have more information on the Chow brothers' work.

Optobionics: Technology for Vision

This company produces a vision prosthesis called the "Artificial Silicon Retina" which is a microchip with about 5,000 microphotodiodes that is implanted below the retina (subretinal placement) in patients afflicted with retinitis pigmentosa or possibly in the future-age-related macular degeneration. The device is designed to make use of the remaining biological structures of the eye, which means the body performs the image processing and not the prosthesis.
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The Artificial Silicon Retina Microchip for the Treatment of Vision Loss from Retinitis Pigmentosa (Apr. 2004)

"After 6 to 18 months of follow-up, all ASRs [Artificial Silicon Retinas] functioned electrically, and no patient showed signs of implant rejection, infection, inflammation, erosion, neovascularization, retinal detachment, or migration. Visual function improvements occurred in all patients and included unexpected vision improvements in retinal areas distant from the implant."
122 ARCHIVES OF OPHTHALMOLOGY 460-469 (2004).

Optobionics Stays Focused as Retina Implant Process Plods Along (16-June 16, 2003)

"All 10 upgraded their vision . . . . One who had seen only darkness can make out blurry shapes; another who had been at the blurry-shapes stage can distinguish between the teams at a basketball game. Another who had only been able to make out his hand in front of his face can read 25 letters on an eye chart and see cars well enough to comment on how ugly they've become. . . . The most promising development is one that Chow didn't expect: The chip seems to stimulate the retinal cells around it, so that the improvements in vision come as much from the patients' own cells as from the implant, or maybe even more."
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Microchip Implantation (Mar. 2005)

This article summarizes much of the activity in the arena of retinal prostheses.
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Robert Greenberg:
Summary: Robert Greenberg is the CEO and president of Second Sight, LLC, which is involved in producing a retinal prosthesis. This retinal prosthesis is implanted on top of the retina and achieves visual stimulation by using a small electrode array. It is still in the trial phase. The following are articles and links providing more details about the technology.

Second Sight, LLC

This private company produces an implantable prosthesis that is placed on top of the retina and is connected to external hardware. Major sources of funding include the DOE and the NIH.
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Second Sight: Retinal Prosthesis Trial Completes First Phase of Testing (May 12, 2003)

This reports some of the results from the implantation of the Second Sight, LLC, retinal prostheses. "'We have found that the devices are indeed electrically conducting, and can be used by the patients to detect light or even to distinguish between objects such as a cup or plate in forced choice tests conducted with one patient so far.'" Also, it mentions that this USC work is supported by Second Sight, LLC, as well as such governmental agencies as NSF, DOE, Office of Naval Research, and DARPA.
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Microchip Implantation (Mar. 2005)

This recent article summarizes much of the activity in the arena of retinal prostheses. (Greenberg is not mentioned in this article; however, Second Sight is.)
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P. Hunter Peckham:
Summary: P. Hunter Peckham is both a primary faculty member at Case Western Reserve University and the executive director of the Cleveland Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) Center. His work is focused on restoring the ability to use the hand and arm in paralyzed patients via a neuroprosthesis making use of FES. The following are links to the institutions in which Peckham is a member, as well as an interesting article on FES.

Case Western Reserve University Biomedical Engineering: Neural Engineering & Rehabilitation

"Neural Engineering solves problems that arise from neurological disorders by interfacing directly with the nervous system. Applying techniques from mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and engineering, our research seeks to understand, interface with, and control the nervous system. Teams start with basic science research, and translate that knowledge in to development of tools to solve clinical problems associated with nervous system dysfunction." Peckham is a primary faculty member whose research interests include "[n]eural prostheses, implantable stimulation and control; control of movement; rehabilitation engineering."
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Cleveland FES (Functional Electrical Stimulation) Center

"'The Cleveland FES Center exists to provide a critical mass dedicated to the advancement of neuro-augmentation and neuro-prosthetic solutions. [The Center] strive[s] to push the research, technology development and clinical deployment until a day when more complete options are made available for patients and clinicians searching for an answer.'"
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Functional Electrical Stimulation for Neuromuscular Applications (Mar. 2005)

This article, with Peckham as one of the co-authors, is a summary of the realm of functional electrical stimulation (FES). The idea behind this technology is to electrically stimulate nerves that in turn stimulate muscles which bring back function to the afflicted patient.
7 ANN. REV. BIOMED. ENG. 327-360 (2005).

Rodolfo Llinàs
Summary: Rodolfo Llinàs is the principal investigator at the Center for Neuromagnetism at the NYU Medical Center and School of Medicine. He is involved in general research on neuron function and brain circuitry. Recently, Llinàs and colleagues developed a technique using nanowires like catheters that shows promise in the quest to better understand and interact with the brain. The following are sources that have further information on Llinàs' work.

Center for Neuromagnetism - NYU Medical Center

"One line of research at The Center for Neuromagnetism deals with the localization and monitoring of neuronal networks underlying cognition. Using magnetoencephalography we can determine the spatio-temporal pattern of coherent oscillatory neural activity correlated with different functional states and cognitive processes in real time."
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Wiring the Brain at the Nanoscale (July 7, 2005)

"If the technique [the 'bouquet' technique of threading nanowires into the brain] works, the researchers say, it would be a boon to scientists who study brain function. Current technologies, such as positron emission tomography (PET) scans and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), have revealed a great deal about how neural circuits process, say, visual information or language. But the view is still comparatively fuzzy and crude. By providing information on the scale of individual nerve cells, or "neurons," the nanowire technique could bring the picture into much sharper focus." This research is NSF sponsored.
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Melding of Nano, Bio, Info and Cogno Opens New Legal Horizons (Mar. 3, 2004)

This article mentions Sonia Miller's Converging Technologies Bar Association. Also, it summarizes a few works including nanowires for brain exploration, other applications (Rodolfo Llinàs) and Duke University's success in having the brain waves of a monkey move "a remote-controlled arm."
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I of the Vortex: From Neurons to Self (2001)

This is a book by Llinàs on his "view of the evolution and nature of mind."
It is published by The MIT Press in Cambridge, MA.

Key Organizations and Projects:

Sample of Important Independent/Multi-sponsored Projects and Institutions:

Allen Brain Atlas (Allen Institute for Brain Science)

"The Allen Brain Atlas project, named for its founder Paul G. Allen, will combine the disciplines of neuroanatomy and genomics to create the most comprehensive map of the brain at the cellular level, illustrating the functional anatomy of the brain through a collection of gene expression maps, brain circuits and cell locations."
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NeuroLab at Georgia Tech

"The Laboratory for Neuroengineering (NeuroLab) at Georgia Tech is a unique shared-space research environment in which the interdisciplinary research teams of seven professors work together to combine wet-lab biomaterials, neurobiology, electronics, neuroimaging, modeling, and multi-dimensional data analysis." Areas of research include "Sensorimotor Integration," "Repair & Regeneration," "Interfacing Technologies," and "Computation & Dynamics," which deals with the study of neurons.
Researchers: Ravi Bellamkonda, Rob Butera, Steve DeWeerth, Michelle LaPlaca, Bob Lee, Steve Potter, and Lena Ting.
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The Scripps Research Institute - Neurobiology

"The major scientific focus of the Department is on vertebrate development, in particular, the development of the nervous system. An emphasis is placed on how the brain develops its wiring and functions to guide motion, perception and sensation. . . . The role of specific adhesion molecules in regulating cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions is being examined in an effort to link information on genetic information to events that direct cell division, movement, and eventual death."
Faculty: Gerald Edelman (chairman), Kathryn Crossin, Bruce Arthur Cunningham, Frederick S. Jones III, Vincent Peter Mauro, Robyn Meech, Peter W. Vanderklish.
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Case Western Reserve University - Biomedical Engineering: Neural Engineering & Rehabilitation

"Neural Engineering solves problems that arise from neurological disorders by interfacing directly with the nervous system. Applying techniques from mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and engineering, our research seeks to understand, interface with, and control the nervous system. Teams start with basic science research, and translate that knowledge in to development of tools to solve clinical problems associated with nervous system dysfunction."
Primary Faculty: Patrick Crago, Dominique Durand, Kenneth Gustafson, Robert Kirsch, Dmitri Kourennyi, J. Thomas Mortimer, P. Hunter Peckham, Dawn Taylor, and Dustin Tyler.
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Johns Hopkins-Department of Biomedical Engineering

The areas of research interests here are labeled "Systems Neuroscience," which "is dedicated to understanding [the brain's] architecture and how it learns and controls a variety of functions," and "Neuroscience and Neuroengineering," where "researchers are developing novel and advanced sensors, instrumentation, micro, and nanotechnologies, and signal processing algorithms for neurosciences."
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McGovern Institute for Brain Research at MIT

"The mission of the McGovern Institute for Brain Research is to meet one of the great challenges of modern science - the development of a deep understanding of thought and emotion in terms of their realization in the brain. This is a challenge that can only be met by the interactions of a multi-disciplinary team of scientists, as it necessitates an integrative approach, with investigations of the relationship of neuronal processes, circuits and computations to cognition. Utilizing both new technologies such as imaging and genetic manipulations, as well as established paradigms, the McGovern Institute will seek to advance the understanding of brain functions such as recognition, perception and decision-making."
Principal Investigators: Emilio Bizzi, Robert Desimone, James DiCarlo, Michale Fee, Ann Graybiel, Christopher Moore, Tomaso Poggio, Nancy Kanwisher, Martha Constantine-Paton, H. Robert Horvitz.
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Laboratory of Cognitive Neurobiology-Boston University

This is taken from Eichenbaum's page: "The hippocampus plays a critical role in memory formation, but our understanding of just what the hippocampus does and how it performs its functions are still issues of considerable controversy. To enhance our knowledge about hippocampal function, we are pursuing a combination of neuropsychological studies of the nature of memory loss in animals with damage to the hippocampus and related cortical areas, and we are pursuing electrophysiological recording studies that seek to determine how information is represented by the hippocampus and associated cortical areas."
Howard Eichenbaum (lab chief).
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National Institute of Health (NIH):

Neural Prothesis Program (NPP)

"Among the goals of the NINDS effort is the development of totally implantable systems for restoring the motor control and sensory feedback for a paralyzed individual."
http://www.ninds.nih.gov/funding/research/npp/index.htm

GENSAT (Gene Expression Nervous System Atlas)

"The GENSAT project aims to map the expression of all genes expressed in the mouse brain at various stages of development."
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Office of Naval Research (ONR):

Neural Engineering & Biorobotics: Neural Computation

"This program unit fosters research to elucidate the organization, structural bases, and operational algorithms characterizing information-processing networks within neural systems. The goal is the development of biological neural networks that incorporate the organizational principles and operational rules of real nervous systems that provide demonstrable enhancements in the capability of information processing systems. Research supported includes neural microcircuitry, in particular from cortical networks, and sensorimotor systems composed of multiple networks."
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Neural Engineering & Biorobotics: Adaptive Neural Systems

"The principal focus of unit investments in this area is to uncover the range of neural mechanisms that contribute to learning, memory, perception and adaptive performance. . . . The mechanisms will be sought via neurophysiological/anatomical/ biochemical/behavioral experiments and modeled with computer simulations."
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Neural Engineering & Biorobotics: Neural-Based Sensing

"The sensing and recognition capabilities of humans and other animals serves as an existence proof of the power of neural computation. . . . The objective of this program is the develop and exploit principles of biological sensing systems in order to produce robust and powerful pattern recognition using superior algorithms and architectures that can be implemented in compact, ultra-low power systems and to demonstrate its performance on Navy applications. Compact and ultra-low power implementation of neural-based sensing that will enable future autonomous robotics and enhance human performance is of particular interest. This program is currently mainly focused on vision . . . ."
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Neural Engineering & Biorobotics: Human Activity Recognition

"This program seeks to develop and exploit video-based detection, tracking and activity recognition of persons, vehicles and small craft in order to infer their threat potential and provide automated alerts to watchstanders . . . a challenging basic research issue, is developing intelligent video techniques for representation and recognition of human activities. Both advanced machine vision and neurally-inspired approaches are of interest. Approaches that exploit knowledge of human biomechanics, motor control and perceptuomotor abilities are of particular interest."
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Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA):

Bridging the Gap: DARPA: Powered by Ideas (Feb. 2005)

This is a general report from DARPA on the organization and its research interests. learn more

Perfecting the Human (May 30, 2005)

This is a summary of the technologies DARPA is currently funding in their quest to "enhance" human beings. Joel Garreau, Perfecting the Human, 151 FORTUNE 101 (May 30, 2005).
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Human Assisted Neural Devices

"The program will create new technologies for augmenting human performance through the ability to noninvasively access codes in the brain in real time and integrate them into peripheral device or system operations."
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Fundamental Research at the [Bio:Info:Micro] Interface

"Common to all Bio:Info:Micro: research efforts is the development of novel computational and microsystems tools to study biological systems ranging from single cells to the mammalian brain." Such is the pertinent aspect of this project.
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Neovision

"The Neovision Program has a goal of using synthetic materials for a retinal prosthesis to enable signal transduction at the nerve/retina interface." Institutes participating in this project include MIT, CA Institute of Technology, Naval Research, University of California - Berkeley, and Harvard Medical School.
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Preventing Sleep Deprivation

"The goal of the Preventing Sleep Deprivation Program is to define and implement approaches to prevent the harmful effects of sleep deprivation, and to provide methods for recovery of function with particular emphasis on cognitive and psychomotor impairments. . . . A research team centered at Wake Forest University is verifying and extending preliminary data demonstrating that the novel class of medicines known as "Ampakines" is protective against cognitive deficits associated with sleep deprivation. . . . Researchers at Salk Institute and Mars, Inc., will completely characterize the neuro-protective and neuro-regenerative effects of a natural anti-oxidant nutrient found in cocoa. . . . Utilizing functional brain imaging, a team centered at Columbia University has determined that certain neural pathways, used for accomplishing specific mental tasks, are much more resilient to sleep deprivation than other pathways, and the individuals who normally use these pathways perform much better after sleeplessness."
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Soldier Self Care (SSC)

The following facet of this project is of particular interest: "Neural Tourniquets: The project will develop a new potential solution to controlling hemorrhage based on recently discovered connections between the brain and the immune system. Experiments have demonstrated that bleeding can be significantly decreased by vagus nerve stimulation."
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Exoskeletons for Human Performance Augmentation (EHPA)

"The overall goal of the Exoskeletons for Human Performance Augmentation (EHPA) Program is to develop devices and machines that will increase the speed, strength, and endurance of soldiers in combat environments. . . . Four EHPA projects are conducting research that will lead to the design and build a fully integrated exoskeleton system."
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Improving Warfighter Information Intake Under Stress

"The mission of this DARPA program is to extend, by an order of magnitude or more, the information management capacity of the human-computer warfighting integral by developing and demonstrating quantifiable enhancements to human performance in diverse, stressful, operational environments. . . . The main goal of this program is to develop a closed loop computational system in which the computer adapts to the state of the warfighter to significantly improve performance."
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Personalized Assistant that Learns (PAL)

"The mission of the PAL program is to radically improve the way computers support humans by enabling systems that are cognitive, i.e., computer systems that can reason, learn from experience, be told what to do, explain what they are doing, reflect on their experience, and respond robustly to surprise."
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LifeLog

"This new generation of cognitive computers will understand their users and help them manage their affairs more effectively. The research is designed to extend the model of a personal digital assistant (PDA) to one that might eventually become a personal digital partner."
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Key International Organizations:

Neurobiology and Biophysics - Albert-Ludwigs Universtitat Freiburg Institut fur Biologie III (Freiburg, Germany)

"The task of organizing perception and behavior in a meaningful interaction with the external world prompts the brain to recruit its resources in a properly orchestrated manner. Contributions from many elements, ranging from individual nerve cells to entire brain areas, need to be coordinated in time and space. Our research goal is to understand how this organization is brought about, and how coordinated activity of neurons is used by the brain." This site is a hub.
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Brain Machine Interfacing Initiative - University of Freiburg
"The Brain Machine Interfacing Initiative at the University of Freiburg establishes a multi-disciplinary collaboration to develop innovative approaches for connecting the human brain to the computer or to the prosthetic device."
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Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Freiburg-BCCN - Albert-Ludwigs Universtitat Freiburg
"In the Berstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Freiburg we will seek to: improve our understanding of neural dynamics at multiple levels regarding their underlying mechanisms, inter-relations, and functional role."
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The Institute of Medical Psychology and Behavioral Neurobiology - Universitat Tubingen (Tübingen, Germany)

"The neuronal and psychological basis of learning and memory are examined at the level of the central nervous system, of peripheral physiological processes and at the level of cognitive and motor processes. Results of the basic psychobiological research are applied to specific clinical problems. A main focus of attention is the exact elucidation of the extent of cortical and behavioral plasticity." Niels Birbaumer is here.
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Weizmann Institute of Science: "Inside the Brain" - Rehovot, Israel

This institute is doing brain research that includes such topics as nerve regeneration, brain imaging, brain "tuning," flavor memories, image recognition (the brain's processing of visual experience), and body coordination (the brain's control of the body's limbs).
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Institute of Neuroinformatics (INI) - Zurich, Switzerland

"The Institute of Neuroinformatics (INI) was established at the University and ETH Zurich at the end of 1995. The mission of the Institute is to discover the key principles by which brains work and to implement these in artificial systems that interact intelligently with the real world."
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Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics - Tubingen, Germany

"The institute works in the elucidation of cognitive processes. The departments, 'Cognitive Human Psychophysics' (formed in 1993) and 'Physiology of Cognitive Processes' (founded in 1997) employ complementary methodological approaches to the systems analysis of complex processes in the brains of primates. The department 'Empirical Inference for Machine Learning and Perception' (founded in 2001) works in the field of statistical learning theory and their application in various fields - ranging from computer vision to bioinformatics. The department of the 'High-Field Magnetic Resonance Center' (founded in 2003) works on the development of new contrast agents as well as (with the finishing of the MR center in 2006) the methodical enhancement and application of the imaging techniques."
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BioElectronic & SysTems Laboratory - Seoul National University (Seoul, South Korea)

This laboratory does research on BMIs, Biophotonics, Cell and Tissue Engineering, Artificial Retinas, Cochlear Implants, and Neural Probes. This website has only a limited amount of information in English.
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Key Media Hub Sites:

Corante: Brain Waves (with Zack Lynch)

This site has links to a variety of organizations involved in neuroscience.
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Center for Cognitive Liberty & Ethics (CCLE)

"The CCLE is dedicated to protecting and advancing freedom of thought in the modern world of accelerating neurotechnologies. Our paramount concern is to foster the unlimited potential of the human mind and to protect freedom of thought." This site is a starting place for gaining an awareness of possible ethical implications of new neurotechnology developments.
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Gyre.org: Tracking the Next Military & Technology Revolutions (Neurotechnology)

This site provides summaries on current news topics concerning neuroscience and highlights BMI news items.
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Dana.Org: Brain in the News

"The Brain in the News is a monthly publication valuable for anyone interested in the latest discoveries about the brain. Each issue is compiled from articles and illustrations, reprinted by permission, that have appeared throughout the country in major newspapers and news magazines."
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BrainMeta.com (formerly Mind-Brain.com)

This is a hub for news stories. "BrainMeta is a community site that was established for the purpose of accelerating the development of neuroscience through web-based initiatives, which include the development, implementation and support of a wide range of neuroinformatics tools, services, and databases. BrainMeta also functions as an internet hub for fostering communication between individuals involved with the neurosciences."
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