Resources

The following is a list of online resources that provide information on genetic patenting. They contain information from government agencies, professional organizations and public interest groups. The resources include information on whether gene patents should be granted and the extent of their applicability. The Human Genome Project Information site of the U.S. Department of Energy describes arguments for and against the granting of gene patents. The National Human Genome Research Institute was a major contributor to the Human Genome Project and its policy on gene patents is available on its website. The Guardian is a newspaper based in the United Kingdom and its website contains numerous news articles on gene patents.

Nuffield Council on Bioethics
www.nuffieldbioethics.org
The Nuffield Council on Bioethics is an independent body examining and reporting on the ethical issues associated with biological and medical research in order to facilitate policy making. The Council's website is available here.

Center for Bioethics and Human Dignity
www.cbhd.org
The Center for Bioethics and Human Dignity is a non-profit organization funded by private groups dedicated to supplying information regarding bioethical issues, such as euthanasia, genetic intervention, and assisted reproductive technologies. Many of the resources and viewpoints are from a Christian perspective. The website is available here.

Council for Responsible Genetics
www.gene-watch.org
The Council for Responsible Genetics is a non-profit non-governmental organization founded to distribute information about emerging social, ethical, and environmental issues in biotechnology. The Council also produces a newsletter called GeneWatch and maintains a website which can be found here.

National Consultative Ethics Committee for Health and Life Sciences
www.ccne-ethique.fr/english/start.htm
The National Consultative Ethics Committee for Health and Life Sciences was established by French governmental decree but now is an independent authority whose mission is to "give opinions on ethical problems and societal issues raised by progress in the fields of biology, medicine, and health." The website, which includes opinions, reports, and related information, is available here.

The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC)
http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/index.htm
The Human Genetics Advisory Committee (HGAC) of the National Health and Medical Research Council was established to provide advice to the Australian government pertaining to the ethical, legal, and social issues of human genetics and related technologies. The website is available here.

Italian National Bioethics Committee
www.palazzochigi.it/bioetica/eng/index.html
The Italian National Bioethics Committee was established to make available information and produce opinions and reports concerning biomedical and genetic research for reference in policy making. The Committee's website can be found here.

European Group on Ethics in Science and New Technologies
http://ec.europa.eu/european_group_ethics/index_en.htm
The European Group on Ethics in Science and New Technologies is composed of 15 appointed experts and is charged with the task of examining ethical questions arising from science and technology. The Group's website can be found here.

International Bioethics Committee of UNESCO
www.unesco.org/ibc
The International Bioethics Committee of UNESCO fosters an international discussion on the social, cultural, legal, and ethical implications of scientific progress. The website, which includes declarations and other resources, is available here.

National: Policy and Ethics
http://www.genome.gov/PolicyEthics
The National Human Genome Research Institute, a division of the National Institutes of Health, maintains a website devoted to ethical, legal, and social issues related to genetic research and technologies. The site, which can be found here contains a policy and legislation database as well as links to publications, resources, and other websites.

HumGen
www.humgen.umontreal.ca/en/
Humgen is a searchable human genetics policy database containing legislation, publications, and reports concerning genetic testing, cloning, gene therapy, intellectual property, and other related topics. The website, which includes a newsletter, can be found here.

U.S. Patent and Trademark Office
http://www.uspto.gov/main/patents.htm
The link below is to the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office where you can view existing and expired patents, apply for patents, and learn other information about gene patenting here.

European Patent Office
http://www.european-patent-office.org/new_hp/sengines/index.htm

The European Patent Office is the patent granting office for European countries that are signatories to the European Patent Convention. The website is available here.

European Patent Convention
http://www.european-patent-office.org/legal/epc/e/ma1.html#CVN
The European Patent Convention is an agreement among the members of the European Patent Organisation that created intellectual property rights in Europe. The agreement is available here.

IP Australia
http://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/
IP Australia grants rights in patents and registers trade marks and designs in Australia. It also provides potential applicants with information on existing patents. The website is available here.

Canadian Intellectual Property Office (CIPO)
http://cipo.gc.ca/
The Canadian Intellectual Property Office (CIPO) manages the intellectual property system in Canada. The CIPO website also contains a searchable patent database and patent application information. It is available here.

The U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. 303 (1980)
http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/ getcase.pl?court=us &vol=447&invol=303
The U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. 303 (1980), which is the landmark case that upheld a patent issued on a genetically engineered organism, can be found here.

The Supreme Court of Canada’s decision in Harvard College v. Canada, [2002] 4 S.C.R. 45,br /> http://www.canlii.org/ca/cas/scc/2002/2002scc76.html
The Supreme Court of Canada’s decision in Harvard College v. Canada, [2002] 4 S.C.R. 45, which prevented the patenting of higher life forms by denying a patent on a genetically modified mouse, can be found here.

Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/27-trips.pdf
The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) was introduced by the World Trade Organization in an attempt to reduce the gap in intellectual property rights among its one hundred forty-seven member States. It provides a minimal level of intellectual property rights as well as rules on enforcement and dispute resolution of intellectual property rights. The Agreement is available here.

Directive 98/44/EC
http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/ dat/1998/l_213/l_21319980730en00130021.pdf
Directive 98/44/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 July 1998 on the Legal Protection of Biotechnology Inventions was drafted to clarify how basic patent protection requirements apply to biological materials in European Union member States. The site is available here.

U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science
http://www.doegenomes.org/.
Information about the history of genetic discovery and the goals and progress of the Human Genome Project and other projects by the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science is available here.

Human Genome Project Information
http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/ elsi/patents.shtml
More specifically, the Human Genome Project Information site is a resource for the U.S. Department of Energy and provides a brief discussion on gene patenting and is available here.

National Institutes of Health (NIH)
http://www.nih.gov/
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is an agency of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The NIH funds scientific research across America and is made up of 27 Institutes and Centers. The site is available here.

National Human Genome Research Institute
http://www.nhgri.nih.gov/11510212
The National Human Genome Research Institute is one of twenty-seven institutes and centers that make up the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and it led the NIH’s contribution to the International Human Genome Project. Its policy regarding gene patents can be viewed here.

The site also provides a brief introduction to gene patents and why a conflict about the patentability of genes exists, as well as links to other sources: http://www.nhgri.nih.gov/10002331.

Institut Curie
http://www.curie.fr/index.cfm/lang/_gb.htm
The Institut Curie is a public organization, based in France, organized to fight cancer. It is the original organization that filed an opposition to Myriad Genetics’s application for a European patent on tests for predisposition to breast and ovarian cancer. The link below contains the organization’s press releases on the progress of their opposition leading up to Myriad’s patent being revoked. The website is available here.

Georgetown University’s Kennedy Institute on Ethics and the Foundation for Genetic Medicine
http://dnapatents.georgetown.edu/
Georgetown University’s Kennedy Institute on Ethics and the Foundation for Genetic Medicine developed a DNA patent database that allows users to search DNA-based patents granted by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. The site is available here.

Patent Watch Project
http://www.icta.org/intelprop/temp.htm
The Patent Watch Project is part of the International Center for Technology Assessment (CTA). The CTA is a non-profit organization designed to educate the public on how technology impacts society. The Patent Watch project is designed to challenge patents that abuse the patent system. The site is available here.

Consumer Project on Technology
http://www.cptech.org/ip/health/biotech/
The Consumer Project on Technology was started by Ralph Nader in the U.S. and it focuses partly on intellectual property rights and health care. It is funded by several charitable organizations. The site provides an array of information on gene patenting ranging from press releases to newspaper articles. The website is available here.

The Guardian
http://www.guardian.co.uk/genes
The Guardian is a newspaper based in the United Kingdom and it has compiled numerous genetics-related articles, including a special section on gene patents and patent applications. The website can be accessed here.

Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)
http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/health/july-dec00/genome_7-6.html
The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) is a private media enterprise owned and operated by the U.S.’s public television stations. The PBS Online NewsHour website contains transcripts and interviews with scientists involved in the mapping of the Human Genome by the Human Genome Project and Celera Genomics, as well as ethicists discussing issues raised by the mapping, including gene patenting. The website is available here.

Institute for Science, Law, and Technology
http://www.kentlaw.edu/islt/publications.htm
The Institute for Science, Law, and Technology at the Illinois Institute of Technology serves science and law-trained professionals addressing complex issues of a global, technologically driven marketplace of ideas, products standards, and conflicts. A list of their publications is provided here.